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Scientific Reports volume 15, Article number: 3042 (2025 ) Cite this article dual power auto transfer switch
Lightning represents the primary threat to power grids, with approximately 80% of natural occurrences being multi-lightning strikes, which have been extensively studied and confirmed to pose even more severe hazards. Hybrid DC circuit breakers (DCCBs) exhibit promising application prospects due to their superior interruption performance. During multi-lightning strikes, lightning intrusive waves pose a greater threat to the insulation of equipment such as hybrid DC fuses, fast mechanical switches, and insulated gate bipolar transistors. Therefore, this paper establishes a simulation model using the Real-Time Digital Simulator based on the model and parameters of the DCCB in the ± 500 kV Zhangbei HVDC project in China. It analyzes the lightning intrusive waves on the DCCB and investigates the energy absorption of metal oxide varistors (MOVs) in the energy-consuming branch of the DCCB under multi-lightning strikes, as well as the overvoltage levels of various branches of the DCCB under such conditions. The research results indicate that the energy-consuming branch has a certain tolerance to multi-lightning strikes. However, if the MOV collapses under multi-lightning strikes, it can lead to severe overvoltage issues. Therefore, the design and selection of DCCBs should fully consider the impact of multi-lightning strikes.
Flexible high voltage direct current (HVDC) transmission systems, compared to traditional Line Commutated Converter (LCC)-based HVDC systems, exhibit lower damping characteristics. In the event of a direct current (DC) line fault, the fault current can rapidly escalate to multiples of the rated current within milliseconds1.
China’s flexible DC power grid project employs overhead line transmission, making it susceptible to lightning strikes due to the high pole towers. Currently operational DC projects, including the Zhangbei DC project, cannot solely rely on converter control to achieve DC side fault self-clearing2. Therefore, two primary schemes are adopted for DC side fault clearing in flexible HVDC transmission systems: the use of alternating current circuit breakers (ACCBs) or DC circuit breakers (DCCBs)3,4.
In view of the problems of lightning fault analysis and DCCB operation of flexible HVDC transmission lines, scholars at home and abroad have carried out more research. For the limitations of the existing topology of DCCBs, a current limiting hybrid DCCB topology based on coupling inductor was proposed in5; An active T-CB (AT-CB) topology to strengthen reliability of the opening process was proposed in6; A novel passive thyristor-based HCB was proposed in7; Transient characteristics and breaking current analysis of circuit breakers under short-circuit faults has been analyzed in8,9; References10 proposed a novel DCCB reclosing strategy for the flexible HVDC grid; The operation overvoltage of breaker opening and closing and the MOV overvoltage has been studied in11,12.
At present, the research on DCCBs is mainly for the new topology design of circuit breakers13,14. The references11 analyzed the significant overvoltage of DCCB caused by MOV stray inductance during fault and proposes corresponding measures to suppress overvoltage, but did not analyze the operating characteristics of DCCB and the MOV dissipation characteristics of DCCB in detail.
Based on the background of Zhangbei flexible DC project, this paper builds models on RTDS (The-Real-Time Digital Simulator), and analyzes the overvoltage level of the DCCB of multi-terminal flexible DC power grid and the energy absorption process of the energy consumption circuit MOV of the DCCB under multiple lightning strikes. All conclusions are based on the RTDS, so as to provide data support for the improvement and performance verification of the DCCB of the flexible DC transmission system in Zhangbei.
All models in this paper are built based on RTDS, a specialized computer designed to study Electromagnetic Transient Phenomena in real-time; it is comprised of both specially designed hardware and software, as shown in Fig. 1. The RTDS hardware is based on Digital Signal Processor (DSP) technology and utilizes advanced parallel processing techniques to achieve the computation speeds necessary for continuous real-time operation. This model includes two modules of RTDS to meet different calculation step requirements: the Large Timestep module and the Small Timestep module, which are connected through the Step Interface Components.
To conduct a detailed analysis of the effects of lightning strikes on DCCB, it is essential to rely on an accurate model15. With reference to the Zhangbei flexible DC project, we establish a four-terminal flexible DC ring network, as depicted in Fig. 2. This ring network is constructed within the Large Timestep module of RTDS, utilizing a calculation step of 5 microseconds.
The Zhangbei Flexible DC Project, the world’s first DC power grid project16, features converter stations that utilize modular multilevel converters (MMCs) based on half-bridge submodules. Each station is equipped with four DC Circuit Breakers (DCCBs), totalling 16 across the project.
Zhangbei and Kangbao stations are sending stations, powered by wind and photovoltaic energy on the AC side. Fengning station, where pumped-storage units are utilized for voltage regulation, is connected to the network, while Beijing station serves as the main load. Table 1 lists the basic system information.
The main equipment parameters of the Zhangbei Flexible DC Project converter station are presented in Table 2; the converter station model, featuring numerous submodules in the MMC, is illustrated in Fig. 3. Due to the time-consuming and labour-intensive nature of modelling, and considering simulation calculation time, this paper employs the bridge arm equivalent model to accelerate the simulation process9.
The main wiring of the DC side of the converter station is shown in Fig. 4; the DL and DB represent DC pole line arresters and DC bus arresters, respectively. The arrester model, as recommended by the IEEE17, is depicted in Fig. 5. In this model, L1 denotes the lead inductance, while L2 and R2 form a filter to separate the nonlinear resistors A1 and A2, and C represents the stray inductance of the arrester.
The main wiring of the DC side of the converter station.
The V-I characteristics of nonlinear resistors A1 and A2 in the arrester model are shown in Fig. 6.
The V–I characteristics of nonlinear resistors A1 and A2.
When the standard value of the lightning overvoltage intrusion wave is 1.62, the discharge current of the arrester DL is found to be less than 0.2kA. Therefore, for lightning fault shielding, the influence of the arrester DL can be ignored. However, for lightning non-fault shielding, the discharge effect of DL needs to be taken into account.
The research on hybrid DCCBs at home and abroad mainly lies in improving their topology, and only the following four circuit breakers are currently used in the field of HVDC transmission, as shown in Fig. 7.18.
Various types of DCCB models.
The internal structure of the circuit breaker is complex due to numerous modules, resulting in extremely slow simulation speeds. Therefore, the port model is utilized, which boasts high simulation efficiency and requires minimal parameters19.
The hybrid DCCB used in Zhangbei DC project can complete the breaking of fault current within 3 ms. The maximum breaking current is 25kA, and reclosing is achieved within 300 ms. The rated voltage of the MOV in the energy-consuming branch is 535 kV, with an energy absorption capacity of 150 MJ16.
The DCCB adopts a diode bridge hybrid DCCB, there is a paper analyzing that the current of the DCCB has little effect on the external characteristics of the circuit breaker when flowing through the main branch or auxiliary branch, so the parameter selection of the capacitance of the main branch submodule is not considered, the capacitance of the transfer branch submodule is 3μF, and the IGBT adopts a 4.5 kV/3kA press-pack device, because the stray capacitance in the module is picofarad level, so the main branch only considers the stray capacitance of the mechanical switch, and the stray capacitance to ground of the fast mechanical switch Cg = 70pF; Interstage stray capacitance Cb = 40pF; Inter-terminal capacitance Cu = 10pF; Bus bar inductance Lu = 8μH, auxiliary switch bus inductance Lm = 10μH; Capacitor wiring inductance Lmc = 5μH, transfer branch module busbar inductance Lt = 20μH; IGBT wiring inductance Lts = 6μH; The capacitor wiring inductance Ltc = 7μH, the energy-dissipating branch MOV busbar inductor Le = 18μH20, and the detailed broadband model is shown in the Fig. 8.
The V–I characteristics of the MOV of energy-consuming branch road was provided by the manufacturer, as shown in the Fig. 9 .
V–I characteristics of MOV.
According to thousands of lightning strike statistics published by China, the United States, Sweden, and other countries, while the number of strikes per lightning event varies across regions, the average number of strikes per event typically falls between 3 and 6. Single lightning strikes account for less than 20% of the total sample size. The CIGRE TB 549 report further states that over 80% of natural lightning strikes are characterized as multiple strikes21.A lightning strike consists of multiple discharges, with the discharge intervals measured in milliseconds. Between these millisecond intervals, multiple microsecond-scale strikes can occur. This phenomenon, where multiple strikes are superimposed, is collectively referred to as multiple lightning strikes22,23. After the initial lightning strike, the discharge channel created by the main discharge remains more conductive than the surrounding air for a brief period. During this time, other charge centers continue to discharge to the ground through this channel, resulting in subsequent second and third lightning discharges, as illustrated in Fig. 10.
Ilight1 and Ilight2 represent the first lightning strike current and the subsequent return stroke current, respectively. Zf denotes the wave impedance of the fault lightning current channel that forms after the initial insulator flashover. Id signifies the lightning current that discharges to the ground. If stands for the short-circuit current. When a lightning strike causes an insulator flashover, part of the lightning current flows into the ground through the flashover point, while the remaining portion propagates along the wire to both ends of the line.
If the first lightning strike does not result in a fault, the subsequent lightning current will propagate in the same manner as the initial strike, specifically toward both ends of the transmission line. This typically occurs under conditions of relatively small lightning current amplitudes and good insulation.
Compared to a single lightning strike, when multiple lightning currents directly hit the transmission line, their cumulative effect generates significant lightning overvoltage on the line or associated electrical equipment, posing a substantial threat to power grid safety and transmission line reliability24. When lightning strikes the tower, multiple lightning impulse currents flow through the grounding resistance within a short period, resulting in current superposition that converts into voltage superposition, which can readily cause line backflashover. When lightning strikes the line directly, the superimposed current flows through the resistance of the lightning arrester valve, potentially causing residual voltage to exceed allowable standards. Combined with heat accumulation in the enclosed environment within the lightning arrester, this can lead to thermal breakdown of the arrester. Lightning overvoltage can cause circuit breakers to trip. If the line is struck by lightning again before the automatic reclosing operation is completed, the superimposed overvoltage will cause the breaker to trip once more, resulting in unsuccessful reclosing. During the frequent opening and closing of breakers under conditions of multiple lightning strikes, the arc continuously burns the contacts, potentially causing breaker failure or even triggering an explosion25.
The lightning current model used the double exponential lightning current, which is commonly used in engineering were \(I\left( t \right) = KI_{{\text{m}}} \left( {{\text{e}}^{ - \alpha t} - {\text{e}}^{ - \beta t} } \right)\) , which K is the correction coefficient, Im is the lightning current amplitude, α and β are the lightning current wavefront and wavetail attenuation coefficients, according to the regulations, the lightning current parameters are detailed in Table 3.
Due to the short waveform time of lightning current, the Large Timestep module of RTDS is difficult to meet the requirements. Therefore, the lightning strike module is completed by the Small Timestep module that with a calculation step of 1.4 μs.
Studies have shown that subsequent lightning strikes have lower lightning current amplitudes compared to the first lightning strike27. This paper sets 4 lightning strikes, considering the ground inclination angle and other factors, according to the IEEE recommended formula, the maximum lightning current amplitude of the first lightning strike is calculated to be 20kA, and the subsequent lightning current amplitude is slightly lower, take 15kA, the interval between each discharge is milliseconds. The waveform of multiple lightning current is shown in Fig. 11.
Current waveform of multiple lightning.
DCCB trips due to overvoltage or ground fault. Lightning strikes that cause tripping can be categorized into lightning strike overvoltage tripping and lightning fault tripping. Simply put, lightning strike overvoltage that cannot be discharged through the arrester can only be mitigated by tripping to protect the equipment in the converter station. Lightning fault tripping occurs when lightning overvoltage causes insulation breakdown, resulting in ground short circuit tripping. During the trip of the DCCB, the current of each branch is shown in Fig. 12.
The current waveform of each branch road during the circuit breaker breaking process.
Imai, Itra, and Imov are the main branch road current, transfer branch road current and energy-consuming branch road current, respectively. The t1 moment in the Fig. 12 is the on-time of the transfer branch road, and the t2 moment in the Fig. 12 is the time when the transfer branch road is disconnected and the energy-consuming branch road is turned on.
After the wire is struck by lightning or fails, the detailed process of the DCCB is shown in Fig. 13.
Zhangbei DC project adopts diode bridge hybrid DCCB, submodule capacitance is 3μF, transfer branch capacitance is 50μF, IGBT adopts 4.5 kV/3kA crimp device, energy dissipation branch MOV rated voltage is 535 kV, energy absorption capacity is 150 MJ, and the maximum breaking current of DCCB is 25kA 16.
Under multiple lightning strikes, the energy-consuming branch road exhibits two working conditions: multiple lightning-induced shield failure strikes without faulty tripping and multiple lightning-induced shield failure strikes with fault tripping. The energy absorbed by the energy-consuming branch road under these two conditions differs respectively, and the following analysis will focus on each separately.
In the case of multiple lightning strikes not causing failure, there is no superposition of fault components, and the current amplitude remains small, not exceeding 2.5kA. The energy absorbed by the energy-consuming branch road in this scenario comes from multiple lightning strikes. However, due to subsequent lightning strikes, the amplitude of the current rises several times, as shown in Fig. 14.
The DCCB turns off the current.
The energy absorbed by the DCCB MOV is shown in Fig. 15, because the wire insulation is good, the shield-failure strike did not cause a fault, and the energy absorbed by the MOV does not exceed 700 kJ.
The energy absorbed by the MOV.
After the DCCB is operated, the voltages across it are shown in Fig. 16, and the udc-brk, umac-brk, uass-brk are the voltages at both ends of the DCCB, the voltages at both ends of the fast mechanical switch, and the voltages at both ends of the auxiliary switch, respectively. After the DCCB is disconnected, the subsequent lightning strike will cause some fluctuations in the voltage at both ends of the circuit breaker, but its effect is not large, and the breaking voltage does not exceed 600 kV.
DCCB with internal overvoltage across the device.
In the case of lightning-induced failure, the energy absorbed by the MOV not only stems from multiple lightning strikes but also includes the power frequency component.
After simulation, it was observed that a 20kA lightning current striking the wire would cause the tower insulator string to flashover. The DCCB breaking current after flashover is depicted in Fig. 17. The breaking current observed for the DCCB caused by the first discharge of multiple lightning strikes is almost identical to that caused by a single lightning strike. Since the first lightning strike initiates flashover, most of the subsequent lightning current is directed to the ground through the fault point, and only a minute fraction of the lightning current is transmitted to the DCCB. Instead of rising several times, the current waveform remains stable; however, due to the superposition of the fault-induced component, the current amplitude reaches approximately 6kA.
The DCCB turns off the current.
After the failure caused by the first discharge of multiple lightnings, the energy absorbed by the DCCB MOV is shown in Fig. 18, absorbing up to 20 MJ. After the fault caused by the first discharge of multiple lightning strikes, the voltage across the DCCB is shown in Fig. 19, as can be seen from Fig. 19, the breaking voltage does not exceed 600 kV, and the DCCB can well limit the overvoltage.
The energy absorbed by the MOV.
DCCB with internal overvoltage across the device.
In the case of multiple lightning strikes of small magnitude, the first discharge may not necessarily cause failure, and there may be flashover after several lightning strikes18, considering this situation, in the case of multiple lightning strikes caused by the third discharge caused by failure, the DCCB breaking current is shown in Fig. 20.
The DCCB turns off the current.
It can be seen from Fig. 20 that the breaking current rises to 7kA, which is the first and second discharge processes caused by the current rise; The reason why the fault current is superimposed after the fault caused by the third discharge is shown in Fig. 21 for the energy absorbed by the MOV.
After the first and third discharge of multiple lightning causes a fault, the energy absorbed by the DCCB MOV is shown in Fig. 22. It can be seen from Fig. 22 that when the third discharge causes a fault, the energy absorbed by the MOV is slightly greater than that of the first discharge, but compared with the capacity of 150 MJ of Zhangbei DCCB, the influence of multiple lightning on the DCCB is basically negligible.
With the increase of service life, the aging problem of lightning arrester can’t be ignored. For example, on July 4, 2021, the C-phase arrester of a 500 kV substation collapsed thermally, and the C-phase cross-section of the No. 64 tower had obvious discharge marks on the 2nd and 8th insulator bowl heads, and the 13th and 20th glass insulators burst28.
It can be seen that the DCCB MOV also has the problem of aging and thermal collapse, under multiple lightning strikes, MOV energy leakage is not timely easy to cause thermal collapse, at this time the circuit breaker switch directly bears overvoltage, therefore, this paper to multiple lightning strikes lead to aging MOV thermal collapse as a premise, as shown in Fig. 23, analyze the overvoltage and internal overvoltage at both ends of the DCCB.
After the MOV was damaged, the energy-consuming branch road lost its function, and the overvoltage across the fast mechanical switch and the auxiliary switch rises rapidly. This is shown in Figs. 24and 25.
DCCB across and internal overvoltage.
Overvoltage of the IGBT of the DCCB transfer branch road.
The first discharge led to a flashover in the wire insulator string. The energy absorbed by the MOV consists of lightning high-frequency components and fault components. The energy released after the first discharge results in the failure or collapse of the MOV. Consequently, the voltage across the fast mechanical switch in the main branch can reach 1000 kV. In Zhangbei DC engineering, the application of fast mechanical switches can withstand up to 800 kV and last for tens of milliseconds29. Additionally, the IGBT sub-module in the transfer branch circuit is subjected to an overvoltage of up to 500 kV. Therefore, the failure of the MOV in the energy-dissipating branch will cause insulation breakdown in the fast mechanical switch of the main branch circuit and the IGBT sub-module of the transfer branch.
Based on the hybrid DCCB model and parameters related to Zhangbei DC, a large number of RTDS digital analog hybrid tests show that:
When multiple lightning strikes occur on the transmission line, the lightning intrusion wave acts upon the DCCB as an energy-consuming branch.
When multiple strikes do not cause a failure, the MOV absorption energy of the DCCB energy-consuming branch is much smaller than its rated capacity, and whether it is a single strike or multiple strikes, the energy absorbed by the MOV is almost the same.
In the case of multiple strikes causing a failure, the MOV of the DCCB energy-consuming branch absorbs more than 20 MJ, but it still poses no threat to the DCCB. Due to the ground short circuit caused by the lightning strike fault, most of the subsequent lightning current enters the ground, and only a very small part is transmitted to the DCCB, so the correlation between the energy absorbed by the MOV and the number of strikes is minimal.
Assuming the collapse of the MOV, the energy-consuming branch loses its function, causing the overvoltage at both ends of the DCCB to increase significantly, significantly exceeding its rated voltage range, and posing a serious threat to the insulation of the DCCB.
All data generated or analysed during this study are included in this published article.
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This study was support by the National Nature Science Foundation of China, key program: Research on the basic theory and method of multiple lightning stroke identification and protection for transmission lines in plateau mountainous areas (Grant Number: 52337005), and Mechanism and data-driven research on issues related to lightning strike risk early warning of overhead transmission lines (Grant Number: 52207109).
National Natural Science Foundation of China, 52337005, 52207109.
The State Key Laboratory of Collaborative Innovation Center for Smart Grid Fault Detection, Protection and Control Jointly, Kunming University of Science and Technology, Kunming, 650500, China
Yutao Tang, Hongchun Shu, Yue Dai, Yu Kuang & Weijie Lou
The Faculty of Electric Power Engineering, Kunming University of Science and Technology, Kunming, 650500, China
Hongchun Shu, Kai He & Yiming Han
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Yutao Tang, provided scheme design and verification work; Hongchun Shu, provided the idea and other technical guidance required for completing the study; Kai He provided language assistance, writing the paper; Yue Dai, the corresponding author, contributed significantly to the research, writing and submission of the paper; Yu Kuang provided figures assistance.; Yiming Han provided final proofreading of this paper; Weijie Lou provided the language polish; All authors read and approved the final manuscript.
The authors declare no competing interests.
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Tang, Y., Shu, H., He, K. et al. Multi-terminal flexible DC grid circuit breaker withstands multi-lightning strike analysis. Sci Rep 15, 3042 (2025). https://doi.org/10.1038/s41598-025-86284-5
DOI: https://doi.org/10.1038/s41598-025-86284-5
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